In the second part of his comprehensive study, Leng Sochea explains that Cambodia has benefited greatly from significant financial contributions from the international community to fund demining activities since 1992. The overwhelming majority of mine action funding has been directed towards mine clearance, but large contributions have also been made to mine risk education (MRE), and research and development. While Cambodia remains a developing country with great pressure on its national budget to finance a wide range of different needs, in recent years the Royal Government of Cambodia has managed to increase the allocation of funds for mine action. The author analyses the goals and challenges confronting the National Mine Action Strategy 2017-2025 that targets the elimination, as far as possible, of the threat to human and animal life posed by landmines and other ordnance. The demining programme ends in 2025 and domestic agencies are expected to handle any remaining threats thereafter.
CAMBODIA’S DEVELOPMENT PARTNERS (DPS) HAVE CONTRIBUTED to all the components of the mine action programme, along with in-kind donations such as metal detectors, vehicles, information technology (IT) equipment, mine detection dogs (MDD), and demining machines. The total documented contributions were almost US$ 268 million for the period 1993-2009.[1] The three operators (the Cambodian Mine Action Centre or CMAC, HALO Trust and the Mine Advisory Group or MAG) received financial contributions from donors of at least US$ 245 million from 1993 to 2009.[2]
The Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC) provided almost US$ 3 million in support to the CMAC from 1994 to 2009, and almost US$ 9 million in core support for the Cambodian Mine Action and Victim Assistance Authority (CMAA), the Royal Cambodian Armed Forces (RCAF) and the police, from 2003 to 2009. In addition, the Ministry of Economy and Finance (MoEF) provided more than US$ 38.5 million over the period 2000-2007 to finance demining support for infrastructure reconstruction projects, giving a total estimated RGC contribution of approximately US$ 50 million from 1994 to 2009.[3] Other Cambodian contributions came from local authorities and the community.
Sharmala Naidoo (2010) found that donors faced increasing challenges in delivering aid effectively in countries affected by mines and explosive remnants of war (ERW).[4] Initiatives such as the Paris Declaration, and the Accra Agenda for Action have encouraged donors to take a wider look at the unique issues encountered in delivering aid to conflict-affected and insecure areas. In order to maximise the benefits of relief, recovery and stabilisation efforts, donors are encouraged to conduct joint assessments, promote flexible funding modalities, work in harmonisation with local governments and communities, and look at wider agendas of conflict prevention, state-building and peace-building in war-torn areas. In maximising aid effectiveness, donors can make valuable contributions toward peace building, strengthening local government institutions, reducing violence, countering poverty, and facilitating the coordination of humanitarian access in communities affected by mines/ERW. It is indeed a challenge to make aid effective in conflict-affected countries.
Donors typically channel their support for mine action through a small number of intermediaries with limited direct support provided to national mine-action authorities. Of the eighteen responses to questions posed by this author, only two donors mentioned clearly that their funding decisions took consultations with mine-affected governments into consideration. This is at odds with the general trend by donors calling for greater national ownership and enhanced national mine-action capacity. The main criteria that donors take into account when considering funding proposals and making funding decisions are: measurement and prioritisation of needs; focusing on clearing areas that yield the most measurable benefit; national ownership and capacity; commitment to meeting Ottawa obligations; measuring the developmental outcomes resulting from mine action; measuring the experience and the capacity of local and international partners; aid effectiveness factors (coherence, coordination, sustainability, and capacity development); gender equality; and proven effectiveness, and experience of local and national mine-action programmes and agencies.
While the total flow of official assistance to developing countries may still be growing despite the current economic climate, there is little evidence that mine-action funding will follow this trend. On the contrary, the relative importance of mine action, combined with mounting donor interest in other global challenges and the fact that the Ottawa Convention has delivered tangible results, will probably mark a turning point in the next three to five years. Beyond the next five years, the picture becomes difficult to predict. However, it is quite plausible that funding will take a further downward trend.[5]
Vanna Mao (2010) has found that Mine Action is not a sector in the traditional sense; rather, it is a series of quite distinct activities to address a common problem, but which cuts across diverse sectors such as health, education, social welfare, roads, agriculture, forestry, mining, and foreign affairs. Some of Mine Action’s unique features stem from the existence of a number of international treaties to which many countries are party. These treaties impose several obligations on States Parties, and donor countries place very different weights on the individual obligations, as well as on more traditional development activities. Mine Action donors set their priorities that reflect some combination of humanitarian actions—saving lives and limbs, survivor assistance (actions across a range of sectors), development and poverty reduction, post-conflict reconstruction, peace building, treaty obligations (such as for clearance), and foreign and industrial policy interests of each donor country.[6]
The Funding Pool
When the CMAC was established in 1992, a large part of the demining capacity was gradually absorbed. From the end of 1993, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Office for Project Services (UNOPS) developed several phases of a project known as “Assistance to Demining Programs.” The objectives of this project were: (1) That donors’ financial contributions would cover CMAC operations, in line with the official mandate of the organisation; (2) to channel donors’ in-kind contributions of specialised military personnel as technical assistance to the CMAC; and (3) to support institutional building in areas of leadership, planning, administration and financial management, through UNDP technical advisors. The UNDP has supported the CMAA through a Clearing for Result(CFR) programme since 2006, whose first phase under UNDP management ended in March 2010 and a second phase (CFR.II), advised by the UNDP but managed by the CMAA, started in January 2011 and ended in 2015. After this, they worked on CFR.III which ended in December 2019. The programme introduced a process of awarding contracts for clearance by competitive bidding, although in practice international NGO operators have felt unable to compete with the square-meter clearance costs bid by the national operators—the CMAC and the NPMEC—that have lower equipment overheads, and they have largely stayed out of the bidding. In 2013, CFR.II spent US$ 4.6 million, including US$ 3.7 million on three clearance contracts, two of which were awarded to the CMAC in Battambang and Banteay Meanchey provinces, and one to the NPMEC in Krong Pailin, which resulted in the release of a total of 17.3 sq. km. of land, three-quarters of which were due to be used for agriculture. CMAA/UNDP reported that mine casualties in the three provinces were two-thirds lower in 2013 than in the previous year.[7]
Bilateral Donations
As stated above, Vanna Mao (2010) found that the Development Partners had contributed to mine action for demining, MRE, and Victim Assistance (VA), along with in-kind donations. Documented contributions totalled nearly US$ 268 million for the period 1993-2009 and could be higher because financial information was unobtainable from some DPs during the study. The three operators (CMAC, HALO Trust and MAG) received documented financial contributions from donors worth nearly US$ 245 million during the period 1993-2009 (Vanna, 2010). Key donors to the CMAC were Australia, Canada, Denmark, the European Union, Finland, France, Germany, Japan, Netherlands, New Zealand, Sweden, Switzerland, the U.K., the UNDP and the United States. In addition, the CMAC works in partnership with a number of international NGOs such as Adopt-A-Minefield, Action Aid, Care Australia, Handicap International Belgium(HIB), Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining (GICHD), Japan Mine Action Service (JMAS), Norwegian People’s Aid (NPA), Save the Children Norway, and Peace Boat. Finally, it has received assistance via a variety of UN agencies: UNDP, the United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR), the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the United Nations Mine Action Service (UNMAS) and the UNOPS. Multi/Bilateral contributions have totalled more than US$ 125 million while the RGC has contributed almost US$ 3 million plus in-kind donation of almost US$ 44 million. Total contributions of almost US$ 172 million from 1993 to 2009 have enabled the CMAC to clear 262,885,148 sq. metres, giving an average clearance cost of approximately US$ 0.65/sq. metre. The CMAC has also delivered MRE and conducted surveys and spot clearance activities in addition to its area clearance work.[8]
The Development Projects
Donors do not anticipate any major changes in the way they do business either in their funding channels or in their programming types and modalities. They are open to integrating mine action projects into broader development programmes if mine-affected countries take the lead in raising the issue. Opportunities within donor administrations for initiating new funding avenues for mine action are marginal.
To cite examples, the Australia Integrated Mine Action and Development (AIMAD) Project was implemented in sixteen villages in two districts of Banteay Meanchey province (Thma Puok and Svay Check) from March 2006 to October 30, 2010 with a total funding of A$ 3.1 million. The project primarily aimed to enhance livelihood opportunities for communities in rural mine-affected villages. It improved socio-economic conditions for these communities through an integrated approach of clearing mines, capacity building of commune councils, and by providing water and infrastructure and support to vulnerable groups, particularly landmine survivors. In addition, Action Aid Cambodia partnered with the CMAC to undertake mine clearance, along with provincial and district agriculture departments, and local NGOs to provide agriculture training and other integrated community development activities. From March 2006 to June 30, 2009, CMAC cleared 1,715,000 square metres, benefiting 1,713 families (6,889 people). The cleared lands were used mostly for agriculture.[9]
The Australia-Cambodia Integrated Mine Action (ACIMA) Project ran from April 1, 2006 to June 30, 2011 with a total funding of almost US$ 3 million, aimed to improve livelihood security of vulnerable households in Pailin and reduce exposure to landmine/unexploded ordnance or UXOs, and to natural disaster. The key areas of focus were land clearance, capacity building of local government and community self-help groups, providing land access and sustainable land use for poor communities, and livelihood improvement and agriculture development. CARE has partnered with relevant provincial and district departments to provide technical support in agriculture and marketing and also with MAG for demining activity. To date, 874,829 square metres have been cleared, benefiting 1,947 families (9,534 people). The cleared land has been used for resettlement, agriculture, and infrastructure.[10]
A Community Strengthening and Gender Mainstreaming in Integrated Mine Action (CSGMIMA) programme ran from June 1, 2006 to December 31, 2010 with a total funding of A$ 3 million and the objective of resolving landmine/UXO and livelihood issues for women, men, boys and girls living in those dangerous areas. The project, implemented in two districts of Battambang province and Preah Vihear province, focused on mine clearance, land allocation, capacity building for local government and community based organisations, mine risk education, landmine survivor assistance, livelihood and agriculture development activities, and gender mainstreaming to improve community-based, participatory and gender responsive land use planning and mine risk reduction programmes, and release land and contribute to agriculture development. World Vision and the International Women’s Development Agency (IWDA) have partnered with relevant provincial and district departments and local NGOs and MAG. To date 1,322,633 square metres have been cleared, benefiting 5,921 families (28,501 people), and the cleared land has been used mostly for resettlement and agriculture.[11]
The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) provided C$ 5 million for the Agriculture Development in Mine-Affected Areas of Cambodia (ADMAC) project from December 2006 to December 31, 2009, but only a limited amount was allocated for mine action.[12] It has helped to reduce poverty among poor and vulnerable men and women farmers in six mine-affected districts of Battambang, Banteay Meanchey and Pailin provinces by increasing food security and income. The project has strengthened the decentralised administrative structures and delivered agriculture extension (including micro-finance) and mine action services. It has also improved community-based, participatory and gender responsive land use planning and mine risk reduction programmes, released land and contributed to agriculture development.
The project, Economic and Social Re-launch of Northwest Provinces (ECOSORN), funded by the European Union and the RGC, had aimed to reduce poverty in the three provinces of Siem Reap, Banteay Meanchey and Battambang by tackling a range of social and economic problems to promote sustainable development for the rural population from late-2005 to December 31, 2010. It resulted in increased and diversified agriculture and fisheries, the development of new employment opportunities and the empowerment of local communities. It also improved access to markets and arable land through facilitation of the provision of land titles and facilitated the establishment of a mine risk reduction programme integrated with commune development plans, and mine clearance activities linked with the implementation of the project. Although the project budget totalled Euros 26 million, funded by the EU (Euro 25 million) and the RGC (Euro 1 million), only Euro 1.17 million was allocated to the CMAC for mine action activities.[13]
Policy and Regulation
The overarching political policy of the Royal Government of Cambodia is to forge a complete and lasting peace in the country in order to improve both the political and the economic domains. The RGC highly values the contributions of the men and women to demining, as well as the work of the CMAC and the different NGOs. The results of their work may not be widely known, but they have generated enormously beneficial outcomes by bringing about a decrease in the loss of life and mine injuries and by providing land for farming and economic development.[14]
Government Funding
The RGC provided US$ 7.8 million in support to the CMAC from 1994 to 2014, in addition to contributions by local authorities and community members to the successful execution of mine action programmes over the last 18 years. The national budget share for mine action was increased between the years 2015 and 2019.
The 2018-2025 National Mine Action Strategy
Cambodia’s National Mine Action Strategy (NMAS) 2010-2019 aimed to free the country from the threat of landmines and to minimise risks from anti-tank mines and ERW. To achieve that goal, the government had set out four supporting general objectives: (1) Reduce mine/ERW casualties and other negative impacts; (2) contribute to economic growth and poverty reduction; (3) ensure sustainable national capacities to address residual mine/ERW contamination; and (4) promote stability and regional and international disarmament.
A review of the NMAS in 2013 found that Cambodia had achieved significant learning on how to organise mine clearance operations with great efficiency. The volume of land released ranked among the most comprehensive of any major mine action programme. It also found that performance had been compromised by lack of annual coordination and planning and noted that the mine action sector was increasingly viewing the NMAS as an irrelevant paper exercise.[15]
Taking stock of the mine action progress and remaining problems in the Kingdom, and in the light of emerging dynamics and new challenges, the CMAA announced a new NMAS for the period 2018-2025 which was signed by the prime minister of Cambodia, Hun Sen, in 2018. The new strategy spells out Cambodia’s roadmap to implement the Ottawa Mine Ban Treaty, addresses other ERW problems, contributes to regional and international peace and stability, enhances international cooperation and capacity building, and prepares itself to address the residual contamination beyond 2025.
The CMAC had earlier developed and implemented rolling strategic plans towards achieving its vision and mission statement. The CMAC’s Five-Year Strategic Plan for 2010-2014 reached its five years of implementation and contributed significantly to strengthening the CMAC’s organisational capacity and increasing land release productivity. Building upon the progress, achievements and experience of the past, the CMAC has developed its Strategic Plan for the period 2018-2025 as a path forward to address the remaining problems and fulfill its mission.
The NMAS 2018-2025 cites the updated contamination data from the Baseline Survey confirming that as of December 2016, Cambodia still had approximately 1,946 sq. km. of contaminated land throughout the country. Among this, approximately 970 sq. km. is mined area and around 975 sq. km. is ERW and cluster munitions area.
Remaining contamination in Cambodia
Land Classification |
Contamination (in sq. km.) |
A1 |
101,634,035 |
A2 |
37,858,945 |
A2-1 |
7,316,348 |
A2-2 |
187,509,024 |
A3 |
49,143,184 |
A4 |
554,742,804 |
B2 |
32,528,369 |
Total Mined Area |
970,732,709 |
B1 |
29,407,683 |
B1-1 |
37,991,056 |
B1-2 |
627,377,453 |
B1-3 |
236,795,647 |
B1-4 |
11,709,152 |
B1-5 |
32,611,286 |
Total ERW Area |
975,892,277 |
Grand Total |
1,946,624,986 |
Source: CMAA
Apart from the internal conflicts and fighting among different warring groups during the civil war, Cambodia earlier experienced one of the most extensive bombing campaigns in populated rural as well as urban areas during the Vietnam War. The still-incomplete database reveals that from October 4, 1965 to August 15, 1973, the United States expended 2.75 million tons of bombs in Cambodia, dropping them in 230,516 sorties on 113,716 sites, mostly concentrating in the eastern parts of the country.[16] During this period, 26 million sub-munitions were also dispensed.
Source: CMAA Database
In addition to landmine and ERW threats both above and underground, Cambodia also faces serious threats from underwater ERW. While it has been very difficult to capture an accurate picture of the threats above and below ground, it is even more challenging to assess and identify risks underwater. Little is known of how much of the riverbed is contaminated and littered with sunken boats and unexploded ammunition. Based on information available, around 200 spots of sunken boats have been reported, but there is little means at this stage to assess and confirm these contaminated spots. In addition, Cambodia has recently identified several locations contaminated with old containers with chemical remnants of wars in the eastern provinces, which will pose new challenges in terms of both identification and removal.
The casualties have continued despite massive mine action interventions by all the demining operators with generous funding: from January to August 2019 there were forty-six casualties, of which twenty were caused by landmines and twenty-six by ERW. From 1979 till October 2019, the total number of casualties across the country was 64,844 (51,093 by landmines and 13,751 by ERW), broken down as 19,779 killed, 9,045 amputations and 36,020 injured.[17] Although there has been a substantial reduction in casualties, the current casualty figures are still high; moreover the negative impact measured by various yardsticks such as physical, psychological, socio-economic and environmental is completely unacceptable. Minefields and cluster munitions sites require planned clearance while other ERW threats are more suited to a relatively reactive model, though some clearance through technical and non-technical surveys continues to be relevant to address the ERW.
Apart from the casualty rate above, the total area of 1,946 sq. km. still remaining to be cleared comprises of minefields (938 sq. km.) and cluster munitions (currently 627 sq. km.), in addition to ongoing high priority explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) call out operations which would address ERW contaminated areas (381 sq. km.). Of the 938 sq. km. of minefields, 555 sq. km. are categorised as scattered anti-personnel mines. Due to the functionality of the types of mines deployed in these low-density minefields, farmers are able to reclaim large areas through cultivation. Some 383 sq. km. are of denser minefields which Cambodia will prioritise for clearance accordingly.
Prioritisation will ensure that most of the mine clearance is conducted on A1-A3 polygons while some clearance on A4 polygons will be limited to those areas where there is a development justification. In addition to threat (of mine functionality), prioritisation will be further refined to include minefield proximity to population.
While operators will continue to conduct EOD call out in order to address the high casualties caused by ERW not captured in polygons, a baseline survey for cluster munitions to confirm hazardous areas will be conducted and similar prioritisation will be applied to the clearance of cluster munitions.
The Goals and Challenges Facing the Strategy till 2025
Well into the life of the National Mine Action Strategy for the period 2010-2019, a mid-term review of the NMAS in 2016 provided a timely stocktake of the country’s humanitarian mine action efforts. A report of the GICHD, “Finishing the Job: An Independent Review of the Mine Action Sector in Cambodia,” provided a comprehensive assessment of the achievements and situation in 2016. It was a welcome contribution to the future direction of mine action in Cambodia. The findings and recommendations of the Review informed the development of Cambodia’s NMAS 2017-2025 along with issues identified through extensive stakeholder consultations on the future direction for the country’s humanitarian mine action programme.
The NMAS 2017-2025 articulates a new strategic perspective to officially confirm the end of the national mine action programme in 2025 and full compliance with Article 5 of the Mine Ban Treaty (MBT). The preparation of the Strategy involved consultation with all mine action stakeholders. It builds on NMAS 2010-2019, previous experiences and achievements, while trying to address gaps and areas of improvements.
The overall approach of the Strategic Framework below is to align mine action with Cambodia’s goal of enhancing aid effectiveness. It provides a framework that ensures RGC ownership and leadership, enables development partners to align their support around national priorities, and strengthens national systems for efficiently and effectively managing resources dedicated to mine/ERW related activities. It proposes the following conditions necessary for achieving the goals specified below.
Enhanced RGC commitment: The RGC is committed to providing strong ongoing assistance for mine action through leadership, policy development, institutional arrangements and financial support. It has demonstrated the importance of mine action through the formulation of a dedicated mine action Millennium Development Goal, incorporating it into the National Strategic Development Plan (NSDP). This approach will continue with updated Sustainable Development Goals. For example, in 2013, the RGC issued a circular on how clearance of the K5 mine belt on the Thai border was to be conducted. The RGC provides leadership, coordination, victim assistance and data collection through the Cambodian Mine Action and Victim Assistance Authority, and other agencies. Over the last six years it has provided about forty percent of international funding. It currently provides mine action funding in Cambodia through support for elements of CMAA, NPMEC, CMAC and the Police, invaluable assets for addressing any future residual issues.
More efficient demining prioritisation and land release: To increase cost efficiency of the sector, Cambodia will achieve more with less resources during the nine years of the Strategy. Because of the continued migration process, the sector will develop a better and more flexible risk management model to prioritise and focus mine action resources in order to respond to population movements (in line with the RGC policy). In 2017-2025, the improved Land Release Policy and Standards has accelerated the pace of addressing the threat in contaminated areas more effectively. Building on the successful approaches and models developed in Cambodia, more efficient prioritisation practices are speeding up land release. Clearance prioritisation will be based around community development and needs, mine type (and functionality), level of accidents and population movement. Operators and mine action planning units (MAPUs) are coordinating task selection, appropriate use of assets and the correct application of Land Release with CMAA directives. Survey and re-survey will be an ongoing activity that defines clearance boundaries and serves as the primary response to all development requests. Based on up-to-date data, Cambodia is concentrating mine action on areas representing the highest risks for communities documented through the MAPU process. Areas with a high density of landmines and with a strong socio-economic impact (documented by the proximity to local communities) are being prioritised.
Stronger donor engagement: The RGC is actively encouraging the donor community to participate vigorously. International partners currently contribute about US$ 30 million or sixty percent of total mine action funding per year. It is critically important that this support continue as Cambodia cannot do it alone.
This Strategy also reflects the RGC’s nine-year vision for mine action and aims to achieve mine action targets identified in national strategic and policy documents such as the Rectangular Strategy III; National Strategic Development Plan (NSDP 2014-2018); Development Cooperation & Partnerships Strategy 2014-2018 (CDC/CRDB): and Cambodia’s Sustainable Development Goal 2030 on mine action and victim assistance (CSDG #18), and SDGs.
Consequently, the Strategy plans for the exit phase of its international mine action operators and stakeholders, and establishes the principles for the setting up of a national residual contamination capacity that will address long-term mine/ERW contamination. Ultimately, a focused, well-funded and efficient mine action sector will contribute greatly to economic growth and poverty reduction with fewer accidents.
Mine/ERW Casualties have Dropped
The Cambodia Landmines/ERW Victim Information System (CMVIS), which was originally established in 1994 by the Cambodian Red Cross and managed by CMAA since 2010, reports a total of 64,888 casualties of landmines and ERW from 1979 to August 2019. The country has been remarkably effective in reducing the number of casualties, ninety percent of whom are male. The number of casualties gradually decreased from 450 per year in 2006 to just 83 in 2016.
Summary of Mine and UXO Casualty Analysis
Date |
Total Casualties |
By Gender |
Types of Casualties |
|||||||||
Mine |
ERW |
Total |
Men |
Women |
Children |
Total |
Killed |
Injured |
Amput. |
Total |
||
Boy |
Girl |
|||||||||||
2006 |
192 |
258 |
450 |
284 |
26 |
109 |
31 |
450 |
61 |
296 |
93 |
450 |
2007 |
138 |
214 |
352 |
181 |
31 |
121 |
19 |
352 |
65 |
230 |
57 |
352 |
2008 |
117 |
154 |
271 |
156 |
18 |
75 |
22 |
271 |
48 |
173 |
50 |
271 |
2009 |
111 |
133 |
244 |
149 |
19 |
64 |
12 |
244 |
47 |
143 |
54 |
244 |
2010 |
142 |
144 |
286 |
172 |
34 |
61 |
19 |
286 |
72 |
170 |
44 |
286 |
2011 |
107 |
104 |
211 |
150 |
10 |
44 |
7 |
211 |
43 |
135 |
33 |
211 |
2012 |
66 |
120 |
186 |
98 |
27 |
46 |
15 |
186 |
42 |
120 |
24 |
186 |
2013 |
48 |
63 |
111 |
77 |
11 |
17 |
6 |
111 |
22 |
68 |
21 |
111 |
2014 |
72 |
82 |
154 |
106 |
15 |
27 |
6 |
154 |
21 |
95 |
38 |
154 |
2015 |
30 |
81 |
111 |
73 |
3 |
28 |
7 |
111 |
18 |
70 |
23 |
111 |
2016 |
42 |
41 |
83 |
59 |
4 |
16 |
4 |
83 |
25 |
32 |
26 |
83 |
Total |
6,545 |
6,591 |
13,136 |
8,990 |
871 |
2,670 |
605 |
13,136 |
2,631 |
7,072 |
3,433 |
13,136 |
% |
50% |
50% |
100% |
68% |
7% |
20% |
5% |
100% |
20% |
54% |
26% |
100% |
Children |
275 |
25% |
Source: CMAA Database Unit
The reduction in casualties has been achieved by a combination of efforts and approaches, including extensive risk education, law enforcement, and mine clearance achievements. However, it is worth highlighting that the number of casualties caused by UXO and other ERW has been consistently higher than those caused by landmines because the rise in the value of scrap metal led to an associated rise in accidents resulting from the deliberate handling of ERW to extract the metal for sale, even though there has been a recent trend of more accidents caused by anti-tank mines.
Ruth Bottomley (2007) has found that a positive development was the significant drop in the number of victims of landmines and UXO in 2006 recorded by the Cambodian Mine/UXO Victim Information System (CMVIS). According to the CMVIS data, the mine/UXO casualties reported from January to August 2006 totalled 353, representing a decrease of fifty-one percent compared with the 715 casualties reported in the same period in 2005. The total number of victims declined from 875 between January to December 2005 to 440 victims in the same period of 2006.[18]
A Mine Risk Education working group meeting was called by the Cambodia Mine Action and Victim Assistance Authority (CMAA) on August 31, 2006 with the intention of discussing the drop in the mine/UXO casualty figures. Different agencies working in the field suggested possible causes for the dramatic decrease in casualty figures, but it was decided that in order to get a clearer picture of the reasons, an interim study should be conducted to provide a better analysis of the situation. Based on the findings, the study would provide recommendations for mine action operators to provide full details of their future planning so as to maintain low casualty rates. In September 2006, the CMAA requested Handicap International Belgium (HIB), Norwegian People’s Aid (NPA), Cambodia Mine Victim Information Service (CMVIS)/Cambodia Red Cross (CRC) and UNICEF to organise and conduct the study. The surveyed respondents stated that mine clearance and EOD were the primary reasons contributing to the decrease in accidents in 2006: 44 percent of respondents mentioned mine clearance as the primary reason contributing to the decrease in casualties; 86 percent of respondents mentioned that there had been official mine clearance in their village last year, and 94 percent of respondents stated that there had been EOD clearance in their village the previous year.[19]
The Size of Mine-Cleared Land has Increased
Over the 25-year period from 1992 to 2016, Cambodia released a total of 1,520 sq. km. (1,520,000,000 m2 (sq. metres) = 44 percent) out of the total contaminated land of 3,466 sq. km. = 3,466,000,000 m2 (1,520 sq. km. + 1,946 sq. km.). Still remaining to be cleared till 2025 are 1,946 sq. km. Cambodia has witnessed a sharp increase in the release of land to farmers. As a result of demining operations and achievements, over 3.7 million landmines and ERW have been unearthed and destroyed, potentially saving millions of lives and limbs. Based on the CMAA’s historical data from 1992-2002, Cambodia achieved 189,129,174 m2 for a 10-year period based on the yearly average of 18,912,917 m2 due to limitation of tools, and funding. As a result, the clearance was less than desired.
From 2003 to 2016, Cambodia achieved 854,068,530 m2 over a 10-year period based on the yearly average of 85,406,853 m2 due to the introduction of new technology, methodologies and integration/combinations of various tools to support the field operations such as Brush Cutter, Mind Detection Dog (MDD), etc. and trained/skilled staff.
Land Release Progress Report by Operators: 1992 to November 2016 (m² or sq. metres)
OPERATOR |
TOTAL |
% |
MINES |
UXO |
TOTAL |
% |
CMAC |
797,878,746 |
52% |
521,786 |
2,115,223 |
2,637,009 |
71 |
OTHERS |
721,908,766 |
48% |
537,900 |
555,673 |
1,093,573 |
29 |
TOTAL: |
1,186,246,179 |
100% |
1,059,686 |
2,670,896 |
3,730,582 |
100 |
Source: CMAA Database Unit 2016
The CMAC has seen steady and sharp increase in demining output, especially from 2011 to 2015, despite employing fewer staff than in its early days. From 1992 to 2016, the CMAC released 797,878,746 m² of contaminated land, which accounts for 53 percent of the total national output produced by all demining operators in the country since 1993. Around 55 percent of CMAC’s total land release output was achieved in the five years from 2011 to 2015.
The CMAC Progress Report, 2006-2016
Period |
Donor and RGC contribution (US$) |
Total (US$) |
Clearance (m2) |
Found and destroyed |
||||
Bilateral |
RGC |
In Kind |
AP |
AT |
UXO |
|||
2006 |
9,868,464 |
214,338 |
204,552 |
10,287,354 |
26,772,625 |
35,745 |
1,000 |
113,296 |
2007 |
12,852,347 |
333,394 |
51,365 |
13,237,106 |
27,666,058 |
32,245 |
587 |
114,755 |
2008 |
12,164,761 |
439,311 |
106,674 |
12,710,746 |
27,653,389 |
25,543 |
497 |
114,101 |
2009 |
12,432,216 |
492,742 |
4,094,998 |
17,019,956 |
37,516,812 |
18,964 |
547 |
133,164 |
2010 |
11,755,163 |
594,271 |
617,926 |
12,967,360 |
75,823,186 |
18,469 |
402 |
135,176 |
2011 |
10,612,434 |
434,380 |
5,703,161 |
16,749,975 |
51,945,961 |
14,802 |
406 |
89,204 |
2012 |
11,394,705 |
1,848,099 |
16,014,806 |
29,257,609 |
76,715,845 |
16,383 |
558 |
97,462 |
2013 |
10,501,233 |
1,242,452 |
3,154,405 |
14,898,090 |
63,876,042 |
11,521 |
284 |
111,471 |
2014 |
13,506,924 |
378,966 |
882,500 |
14,768,390 |
135,457,548 |
14,027 |
346 |
99,081 |
2015 |
12,607,797 |
1,433,935 |
370,669 |
14,412,401 |
102,576,537 |
7,890 |
185 |
51,456 |
2016 |
7,941,114 |
2,512,349 |
0 |
10,453,463 |
86,964,505 |
4,300 |
128 |
30,209 |
Total |
125,637,158 |
9,924,237 |
31,201,056 |
166,762,450 |
712,968,508 |
199,889 |
4,940 |
71,089,35 |
Source: CMAA Database Unit
Based on estimates, Cambodia will need about US$ 400 million to address the remaining 1,946 sq. km. of contaminated areas (of mines, cluster munitions and other ERWs) for a period of nine years, from 2017 to 2025, as outlined in the Strategy.
Estimated Land Release Budget for NMAS, 2017-2025
Land Areas |
Classification |
Remaining Contamination Size (m2) |
Land Released thru Cancellation (m2) |
Budget Need for Cancellation |
Land Released Thru Full Clearance (m2) |
Budget Need for Clearance |
Total Amount |
Mines |
A1 |
101,634,035 |
25,815,045 |
$348,503 |
75,818,990 |
$55,347,863 |
$55,696,366 |
A2 |
232,684,317 |
51,698,947 |
$697,936 |
180,985,370 |
$69,648,604 |
$70,346,540 |
|
A3 |
49,143,184 |
7,651,594 |
$103,297 |
41,491,590 |
$9,128,150 |
$9,231,446 |
|
A4;B2 |
587,271,173 |
293,635,587 |
$3,964,080 |
293,635,586.50 |
$88,090,676 |
$92,054,756 |
|
Cluster Munition (B1.2) |
627,377,453 |
219,582,109 |
$2,964,358 |
407,795,344.45 |
$138,650,417 |
$141,614,776 |
|
ERW (Other than Cluster Munition) |
348,514,824 |
121,980,188 |
$1,646,733 |
226,534,635.60 |
$36,245,542 |
$37,892,274 |
|
Total |
1,946,624,986 |
720,363,470 |
$9,724,907 |
1,226,261,517 |
$397,111,252 |
$406,836,158 |
The RGC recognises that the demand on the development dollar has increased in recent years. The aid dollar is constrained by crises in the Middle East, refugee flows, as well as the impact of the downturn of the global economy. Future contributions are likely to be insufficient to meet the full requirement for the NMAS target of 2025.
As a consequence, Cambodia must be proactive in planning the final phase of addressing the remaining part of the landmine and ERW contamination issue. The country will engage with both traditional and potential new donors, and further explore additional funding sources, and seek to be more effective in the use of available resources and technologies. The RGC will plan to transition from external to domestic funding, which will see the gradual withdrawal of international donors and the acceptance by Cambodia of more responsibility for any residual clearance.
Cambodia will employ a multipronged approach by mobilising sufficient resources for the complete removal of landmines and ERW, improving the cost efficiency of the sector, deploying new and different ways of planning and of approaching the landmine/ERW issue as outlined above, particularly in relation to land release and task prioritisation. The policy dialogue with development partners and the Technical Working Group on Mine Action (TWG-MA) will be strengthened, through additional (at least two or three) meetings each year. Meetings will be used to engage development partners, collect their opinion and listen to their advice and recommendations on the best strategy for the programme. While the end is in sight, Cambodia needs continued external assistance, in the form of both donors and operators to complete the task. Traditional ‘humanitarian donors’ will be encouraged to continue their support to the sector for as long as it is possible to reach the ‘end state’ by 2025. New emerging donors, already involved in other development infrastructure or education projects linked to mine action, will also be encouraged to assist. In this regard, the countries of particular interest to Cambodia are China and South Korea, and the Persian Gulf region. The focus will be on tasking traditional and new donors with addressing high priority areas, such as dense AP contamination which represents a major threat to local communities.
Another emerging pillar of global humanitarian action is private funding. As a concrete example, 50 percent of MAG’s activities are currently funded by private philanthropic foundations. A more direct targeting of philanthropic stakeholders possibly through intermediary actors such as philanthropic advisors could be explored by the Cambodian mine action sector. The donor base is being expanded to other non-bilateral sources of support, which is likely to include sourcing soft loans from multilateral financial institutions. Cambodia will also seek to build on the approach of some international non-government organisations which have successfully received support from private foundations. Realising the negative aspects of contamination on national development and poverty alleviation, the RGC recognises that more needs to be done. But it is mindful of national budgetary constraints, conscious of other development priorities, and cautious of the national capacity to do more. Cambodia will continue to provide a fuller disclosure of the money it contributes to the various aspects of mine action in a more transparent and accountable manner. In this way, it hopes to ensure a smooth transition from international to full domestic responsibility for mine action in Cambodia and to reassure donors of the part it is already playing. The RGC is continuing to support national coordination and regulatory functions through the CMAA, and it is supporting national operators for contract demining and large infrastructure projects.
The Cost and Benefit of Demining
Bjørn Gildestad has found that demining is contributing substantial value to the Cambodian economy and the country in general.[20] Analysis of the 2004 clearance programme shows a benefit cost ratio (BCR) of 0.38, implying that benefits are in general 38 percent higher than the costs, on the basis of an average clearance cost rate of US$ 0.9 per m2. The internal rate of return will, on the same assumptions, be 14 percent. The benefits amount to about US$ 37 million in total, distributed as 80 percent on clearance for development, and 20 percent on reduced human loss. Roads and bridges make up the largest parts with 45 percent, even though such clearance tasks only comprise 19 percent of the total area cleared. Smaller size tasks related to irrigation canals also contribute considerably. For agricultural land the situation is inverse: it constitutes as much as 65 percent of the cleared area while making up 28 percent of the benefits. In total, about 29 sq. km. of mined areas were cleared as planned in 2004.The benefits from renewed access to more direct road links can be considerably larger than the costs required for clearance, but the benefits from renewed access to wells for local water supply, schools and health stations have likewise few difficulties with justifying clearance on the basis of the reduced travel time and travel costs for users and pupils. These are excellent candidates from a development perspective, and such tasks should be given priority as far as benefits in economic terms are concerned. It is evident that the programme benefits could be enhanced by diverting more of the clearance activity towards rural infrastructure like roads, water supply, and schools, and to tourism sites.
The output per hectare of arable land is on an average rather moderate in Cambodia. Yet the main conclusion is not that clearance of agricultural areas is unprofitable. There is, however, a call for conscious prioritisation and a planning process capable of identifying those areas and tasks that are of greatest importance to local communities. In the agricultural sector, high priority should be given to the reopening of irrigation systems, permitting dry season cultivation of arable land. Benefits could be extensive and have important consequences for the rural economy and food production. Clearance for casualty reduction also needs to be well targeted in most of the cases and locations in order to have the desired effect. Improved assessments could be made of the extensively mined area in the country that are generating the bulk of the mine/UXO accidents, representing a danger to the people now and in future years with expected population movements. In spite of the excellent statistics on mine/UXO casualties, there is a lack of methodology in the analysis that could help direct the clearance activity towards the most risky locations.
The benefits, indeed, cover the clearance costs in all provinces. The four provinces of Battambang, Oddar Meanchey, Banteay Meanchey and Preah Vihear collected the bulk (78 percent) of the benefits from the 2004 clearance programme. The benefit-cost ratio is, however, highest in Kampong Cham and Pailin. A large part of the benefits come from gains related to economic development. Still, the reduced loss of human lives is an essential factor contributing to an increase in the benefits from land clearance, particularly in Pailin where the ratio of accidents has dramatically decreased against a sharp increase in the cultivated land.
Demining’s contribution in the years 1992-2003 helped increase the country’s paddy output to over 50,000 tonnes per annum . The increase in production has been made possible on reclaimed agricultural land and through renewed access to irrigation canals. It constitutes an average 3 percent growth in paddy production in the mine action regions but could be even more important for food security in provinces like Pailin, Kep, Banteay Meanchey and Battambang, because these four provinces had suffered tremendously from mines/ERW which had worsened their food security scenario before the demining programme began.
A transparent and equitable system for redistribution of the reclaimed land is an important goal under the mine action programme. The cleared areas may have provided land and contributed to improve land security for about 160,000 families over the period 1992-2003, that is, for over 13,000 families on an average each year. Clearance of water supply systems and rural wells has improved access to safe drinking water in rural areas, as an estimated 1,400 wells and ponds have been cleared in the period 1992-2003. Demining school premises contributes to improving the education system so that more children are able to complete school. Mine clearance is also frequently required to provide access to rural health stations, which are much needed in the fight against spread of diseases and to reduce child and maternal mortality. It is estimated that about sixty health stations have been cleared under the mine action programme. There are indications that landmine damage to domestic animals might constitute a significant economic loss, the redressal of which requires an improved reporting system, if possible through CMVIS. The extent of the mine/UXO infested area is, however, disputed, in particular, what parts of such land should be given priority for clearance.
Recommendations
It is strongly recommended to revise the estimates of the 1,946 sq. km. contaminated area, as it will help to allocate resources. Since 2006, the CMAA database has been using the Information Management System of Mine Action (IMSMA), which is a database system that the GICHD introduced for use in mine affected countries. Some operators use this system but others employ their own database system which has created difficulties at the central database. Resolving the problem would take time because all the players have to be convinced to try to work together in order to improve management for data collection. The CMAA database on cleared areas needs to be consolidated so that it can provide official figures for clearance on location (province, district), types of areas, and techniques for the individual years since the start of the mine action programme. As of today, this information exists on different files which can be incomplete and inconsistent. The operators should be required to provide better data on the cost of conducting mine action activities. Some operators are in the process of developing their accounting procedures, which could result in better cost-estimates with more details on different types of areas, tasks and techniques, information which to a large extent is non-existent now. As a first approach, more information about the clearance time (in hours) of different types of tasks and areas could be demanded. A library or Information and Documentation Centre should be established at the CMAA to secure the institutional memory, comprising publications and reports issued by the programme and its service providers as well as literature related to mine action in general. Documents should be available in hard copies and/or in electronic format on computers and compact discs to facilitate copying and dissemination. Fire-protected and waterproof storing conditions should be provided.
The CMAA is responsible for regulating, coordinating and monitoring mine action activities. It started implementing post-clearance monitoring in 2006 with the deployment of two Socio-Economic Teams. At that time, the Teams were able to monitor only about 10 percent of the lands cleared each year. This was due to the fact that the Teams were based at the CMAA in Phnom Penh, with limited staff and funding, and had to cope with a large amount of cleared lands to be visited each year.
In 2009, the CMAA decided to delegate the Post-Clearance Monitoring function to the MAPUs. Selected MAPU officials were trained by the CMAA’s Socio-Economic Teams on how to conduct Post-Clearance Monitoring. The delegation of the Post-Clearance Monitoring function by the CMAA allows MAPUs to monitor post-clearance land use and verify beneficiaries of all lands cleared against the work plans each year in their respective provinces. To date, the MAPUs that possess post-clearance monitoring capacity are the ones in Battambang, Banteay Meanchey, Pailin, Oddar Meanchey, Preah Vihear, Pursat, Siem Reap and Kompong Thom.
The aim of the Post-Clearance Monitoring is to verify whether the cleared land is being used by the intended beneficiaries for the proposed purpose as defined during the planning stage. This allows MAPUs to monitor post-clearance land use and verify beneficiaries of all sites cleared against the work plans in their provinces, to learn lessons to improve the next process of mine clearance planning, and to address land use issues that may have occurred. From October 2008 to February 2016, the MAPU Post-Clearance Monitoring Officials visited 6,407 sites covering 456,370,000m² (23 percent) out of the total post-cleared land of 1,520,000,000m2 (1992-2016). They found that the post-clearance monitoring data indicated that 32,920,000m² (7 percent) were used for housing; 268,900,000m² (60 percent) were used for agriculture; 133,120,000m² (30 percent) were used for infrastructure, and 12,460,000m² (3 percent) were not used as yet. It benefitted over 348,408 families, and a total population of 1.232 million people, including 616,943 females and 28,640 students.
Post-Clearance Work
Source: CMAA Database Unit
Post- Clearance Land Use
Source: CMAA Database Unit, 2016.
From 1992 to 2017, Cambodia released a total of 1,545 sq. km. of mine and ERW area at an approximate cost of US$ 464.14 million. In these twenty-five years the programme has helped to save lives and support economic development. There is still a remaining area of 1,970 sq. km. to be cleared till 2025, comprising 946 sq. km. of mined areas, 379 sq. km. of ERW areas and 645 sq. km. of cluster munition areas). Under the new NMAS 2018-2025, Cambodia projects that it will need around US$ 406 million to implement the NMAS mission to release all known landmine and prioritised cluster munition contaminated areas, and to minimise the residual risks caused by explosive remnants of war.
To achieve this goal, the mine action sector needs to solve two problems; one is an internal issue that needs the CMAA leadership to adopt methodology and data management and to reallocate the scarce resources. The second problem is an external issue of fund raising, for which the country relies on the donors, who have been critical to the success of the programme. If these issues are not resolved in time, the country may not be able to achieve the overarching goal as stated in the Maputo Review Conference on a Mine-Free World in 2014. Cambodia endorsed the “Maputo +15 Declaration” with an ambition to intensify efforts to complete clearance to the fullest extent possible by 2025. The stopwatch, so to speak, is ticking.
Leng Sochea holds a PhD (2018) in Business Administration from Asia Europe University, Phnom Penh, Cambodia; an MBA degree (2005) from the National University of Management, Phnom Penh; a Bachelor’s degree in Business Administration (2002) from the National Institute of Management, Phnom Penh; and a Bachelor of Law degree (1999) from the Royal University of Law and Economy, Phnom Penh. His varied career began as a worker making fishing nets at a Khmer Rouge factory from 1975 to 1979. Currently, he is an Adviser to the Chairman of the Cambodian National Election Committee since 2016, a rank equal to the Secretary General of the NEC. Concurrently, he is the Permanent Vice-Chairman of the Governing Council of the Cambodia Mine Action Centre, since 2011, ranking equal to a minister. He was the Vice-Chairman of the Governing Council of the Cambodia Mine Action Centre in 2011-2012, and he served as the Deputy Secretary General of the Cambodia Mine Action Authority during 2000-2011. He attended the Senior Mine Action Management course at Cranefield Army University in the UK in 2002, a Law and Economics Awareness course at L’Ecole Royale Administration, as well as training courses at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Earlier, he was the Head of the Public Information Office and the Spokesperson of the National Election Committee in 1998-2006, and the Deputy Director General in charge of Audio Visual and Media Centre at the Ministry of Information in 1994-2000. He began a career in government working as a Department Director at the Media Centre of the Ministry of Information between 1992 and 1994. Earlier, he was a journalist for the Japanese newspaper, Mainichi Shimbun, in 1991-92, reporting on the United Nations’ Transitional Authority in Cambodia.
[1] Vanna Mao, Aid Effectiveness, April 2010. Remark: the author could only document contributions from Australia, the United States, Canada, Germany, the Netherlands and Japan during the study.
[2] CMAC: US$ 168.9 million; HALO Trust: US$ 52.4 million; and MAG: US$ 22.9 million.
[3] Vanna Mao, Aid Effectiveness. The UNDP reported that the RGC provided a contribution of approximately US$ 3.3 million in 2009 and US$ 2.27 million in 2010 to the CMAA, CMAC, the National Centre for Peacekeeping Forces, Mine and ERW Clearance (NPMEC), and the Police and Border Committee. Greater contribution was provided by the RCAF in demining operations conducted to support infrastructure construction. (Source: e-mail from UNDP programme advisor, December 8, 2011).
[4] Jean Devlin and Sharmala Naidoo, “Mine-action Funding: GICHD Survey of Donor Countries,” Journal of Mine & ERW of Mine Action 14, no.3 (Fall 2010).
[5] Ibid.
[6] Vanna Mao, Aid Effectiveness.
[7] ICBL-CMC Newsletter, March 2014.
[8] Vanna Mao, Aid Effectiveness.
[9] Ibid.
[10] Ibid.
[11] Ibid.
[12] Ibid.
[13] Ibid.
[14] Cambodia’s first Socio-Economic Development Plan (SEPDI) covered 1996-2000.
[15] ICBL-CMC Newsletter, March 2014.
[16] Taylor Owen and Ben Kiernan, “Bombs Over Cambodia,” Walrus, October 2006: 62-69.
[17] CMAA Database, August 2019.
[18] Ruth Bottomley, “A Study on the Dramatic Decrease of Mine/UXO Casualties in 2006 in Cambodia,” February 2007, cited in “Landmine Monitor 2007,” Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor.
[19] Bottomley, “A Study on the Dramatic Decrease of Mine/UXO Casualties .”
[20] Bjørn Gildestad, “Cost Benefit Analysis of Mine Clearance Operations in Cambodia,”Centre for International Stabilization and Recovery, James Madison University (2005): 37-77. Global CWD Repository, 1155. https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/cisr-globalcwd/1155.